Discovering of Harappan civilisation
1. Context of Forgotten Cities:
- Initially, Harappan cities fell into ruin, and over time, people forgot about them.
- Millennia later, when people started living in the area again, they encountered strange artifacts emerging from floods, soil erosion, plowing, or treasure hunting.
2. Cunningham's Approach:
- Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI (Archaeological Survey of India), initiated excavations in the mid-nineteenth century.
- Archaeologists of his time relied on written texts and inscriptions for guidance in investigations.
- Cunningham's primary interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic and later periods, using accounts from Chinese Buddhist pilgrims for locating early settlements.
3. Challenge with Harappa:
- Harappa, not part of Chinese pilgrims' itinerary and not recognized as an Early Historic city, didn't align with Cunningham's investigation framework.
- Despite Harappan artifacts being discovered in the nineteenth century, Cunningham didn't grasp their age due to his focus on a different historical timeframe.
- He received a Harappan seal but struggled to place it within his familiar historical context, assuming Indian history began with the Ganga valley cities.
4. Missed Significance of Harappa:
- Cunningham's specific focus led to him overlooking the significance of Harappa in his excavations.
- The Harappan civilization's antiquity was not recognized at that time, contributing to a lack of understanding about its historical importance.
A new old civilisation
1. Seals Discovery and Realization:
- Archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni uncovered seals at Harappa in the early 20th century, realizing they were much older than Early Historic levels.
- Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro, suggesting a shared archaeological culture.
- In 1924, John Marshall, the Director-General of ASI, declared the discovery of a new civilization in the Indus Valley to the world.
2. Marshall's Impact on Indian Archaeology:
- John Marshall, the first professional archaeologist in India, introduced a significant change.
- Marshall, drawing from his experience in Greece and Crete, shifted the focus to not only spectacular finds but also patterns of everyday life.
3. Shift in Archaeological Approach:
- Marshall excavated along regular horizontal units uniformly measured throughout the mound, disregarding site stratigraphy.
- This approach grouped artifacts from the same unit together, even if found at different stratigraphic layers.
- Unfortunately, this method led to the irreversible loss of valuable contextual information about the finds.
4. Global Recognition:
- Marshall's announcement of the new civilization in the Indus Valley, contemporaneous with Mesopotamia, marked a significant moment in global archaeology.
- Similar unidentified seals found in Mesopotamian sites further confirmed the existence of this ancient civilization.
1. Seals Discovery and Significance:
- Archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni discovered seals at Harappa in the early 20th century, realizing their age surpassed Early Historic levels.
- Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro, suggesting a shared archaeological culture.
- In 1924, John Marshall announced the discovery of a new civilization in the Indus Valley, marking a significant historical revelation.
2. Global Impact and Contemporaneity:
- Marshall's declaration revealed a civilization contemporaneous with Mesopotamia, expanding global understanding.
- Similar unidentified seals in Mesopotamian sites affirmed the existence of this ancient civilization.
3. Marshall's Influence on Indian Archaeology:
- John Marshall's tenure as ASI Director-General signaled a pivotal shift in Indian archaeology.
- As the first professional archaeologist in India, Marshall brought experiences from Greece and Crete.
- Differing from Cunningham, Marshall not only sought spectacular finds but also focused on uncovering patterns of everyday life.
4. Archaeological Approach and Challenges:
- Marshall's excavation methodology involved regular horizontal units, ignoring site stratigraphy.
- This approach resulted in grouping artifacts from the same unit together, regardless of different stratigraphic layers.
- Unfortunately, this led to the irreversible loss of valuable contextual information about the recovered artifacts.
Sites, mounds, layers
1. Formation of Archaeological Sites:
- Sites are created as people produce, use, and discard materials and structures over time.
2. Mound Formation:
- When people consistently inhabit an area, the continuous use and reuse of the landscape lead to the accumulation of occupational debris, forming a mound.
3. Effect of Abandonment:
- If a place is briefly or permanently abandoned, the landscape can be altered by wind or water, causing erosion.
4. Detection of Occupations:
- Occupations are identified by traces of ancient materials found in layers, distinguished by differences in color, texture, and the types of artifacts present.
5. "Sterile Layers" and Abandonment:
- Abandoned or deserted layers, termed "sterile layers," lack traces of ancient materials, helping identify periods of abandonment.
6. Stratigraphy:
- The study of layers in archaeological sites, where the lowest layers are usually the oldest, and the highest layers are the most recent, is known as stratigraphy.
7. Artifact Assignments and Cultural Sequence:
- Artefacts found in specific layers can be assigned to particular cultural periods, providing a cultural sequence for a site.
New techniques and questions
1. Wheeler's Changes in Archaeological Approach:
- R.E.M. Wheeler, Director-General of the ASI from 1944, addressed a problem by emphasizing following the natural layers of the archaeological mound (stratigraphy) rather than digging uniformly.
- His military background brought a precise and organized approach to archaeology.
2. Harappan Civilisation and National Boundaries:
- The Harappan civilization's borders do not align with modern national boundaries.
- After the subcontinent's partition and the creation of Pakistan, many major Harappan sites are now in Pakistani territory.
- Indian archaeologists are actively searching for Harappan sites within present-day India, discovering settlements in Kutch and exploring Punjab and Haryana.
3. Ongoing Discoveries:
- Efforts have led to the discovery, exploration, and excavation of sites like Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi, and recently, Dholavira.
- Continuous explorations are underway to uncover more about the Harappan civilization.
4. Evolution of Archaeological Questions:
- Archaeologists now focus on diverse issues. Some aim for a cultural sequence, while others seek to understand why specific sites were chosen.
- They grapple with interpreting the functions of various artifacts found during excavations.
5. International Collaboration and Modern Techniques:
- Since the 1980s, there has been increased global interest in Harappan archaeology.
- Experts from the subcontinent and abroad collaborate, using modern scientific techniques like surface exploration to analyze clay, stone, metal, plant and animal remains, and every available piece of evidence.
- These joint efforts hold the promise of revealing intriguing insights into the Harappan civilization in the future.
Problems of Understanding the Harappan Civilization:
1. Script Limitations:
- The Harappan script doesn't provide insights into the ancient civilization.
2. Material Evidence Importance:
- Archaeologists rely on material evidence, such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and household objects, to reconstruct Harappan life.
3. Organic Material Challenges:
- Organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds decompose, especially in tropical regions.
- Surviving materials include stone, burnt clay, and metal.
4. Artifact Disposal and Retrieval:
- Only broken or useless objects would likely be discarded; valuable artifacts found intact are accidental discoveries, not the norm.
- Objects could have been recycled instead of thrown away.
Classifying Finds:
1. Beginning the Archaeological Process:
- Recovering artifacts is the initial step in archaeology.
2. Principles of Classification:
- Classifying artifacts involves considering material (stone, clay, metal) and function (tool, ornament, ritual object).
3. Determining Function:
- Identifying an artifact's function is guided by its resemblance to present-day objects and the context of its discovery.
4. Indirect Evidence and Context:
- Indirect evidence, like depictions in sculpture, is used when direct evidence is lacking.
- Context, whether found in a house, drain, grave, or kiln, helps understand the artifact's purpose.
5. Frames of Reference:
- Archaeologists develop frames of reference to understand artifacts, as seen with the first Harappan seal requiring context for interpretation, involving cultural sequences and comparisons with Mesopotamia.
Problems of Interpretation in Archaeology:
1. Early Perspectives on Religious Practices:
- Early archaeologists faced challenges interpreting religious practices.
- Certain unfamiliar objects, like terracotta figurines of jeweled women or seated stone statuary, were initially considered with religious significance, often labeled as mother goddesses or "priest-king."
2. Structures and Ritual Significance:
- Some structures, like the Great Bath and fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal, were assigned ritual significance.
3. Interpreting Seal Imagery:
- Seals were examined for religious beliefs and practices.
- Some seals depicted ritual scenes, while those with plant motifs were associated with nature worship.
- Animals, like the one-horned "unicorn," depicted on seals were seen as mythical creatures.
4. "Proto-Shiva" and Lingas:
- Seated figures in a "yogic" posture, labeled as "proto-Shiva," were interpreted as early forms of Hindu deities.
- Conical stone objects were classified as lingas, a symbol in Hinduism.
5. Assumptions and Speculations:
- Reconstructions of Harappan religion often assumed parallels with later traditions.
- Challenges arise when extending interpretations to symbols with religious significance.
6. Comparison with Rigveda:
- The Rigveda, the earliest religious text (compiled c. 1500-1000 BCE), mentions a god named Rudra, later identified with Shiva.
- However, the depiction of "proto-Shiva" on Harappan seals differs from Rudra in the Rigveda.
- The question arises if this could represent a shaman, as suggested by some scholars.
Achievements After Decades of Archaeological Work:
1. Understanding the Harappan Economy:
- A fairly good understanding of the Harappan economy has been achieved through archaeological work.
2. Teasing Out Social Differences:
- Archaeological efforts have successfully teased out social differences within the Harappan civilization.
3. Insight into Civilization Functioning:
- There is some understanding of how the Harappan civilization functioned.
4. Uncertainties Regarding the Script:
- The deciphering of the Harappan script remains a challenge, and its successful decoding could potentially provide more comprehensive insights.
5. Importance of Bilingual Inscription:
- The discovery of a bilingual inscription could potentially answer questions about the languages spoken by the Harappans.
6. Speculative Reconstructions:
- Several aspects, such as the ritual nature of the Great Bath, the extent of literacy, and social differentiation in Harappan cemeteries, remain speculative.
7. Unanswered Questions on Gender:
- Questions about gender roles, including whether women made pottery or solely painted pots, are still unanswered.
8. Underexplored Gender Issues:
- Few scholars have investigated gender issues within the Harappan civilization, presenting a new area for future research.
Summary:
After decades of archaeological work on the Harappan civilization, achievements include a good understanding of the economy, teasing out social differences, and insights into how the civilization functioned. Challenges persist in deciphering the script, and certain aspects like the ritual nature of structures and gender roles remain speculative. The potential impact of a bilingual inscription and the need for further exploration of gender issues highlight areas for future research.
Comments
Post a Comment