The Harappan Civilisation

 The Indus valley civilisation is also called the Harappan culture. Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time. In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades (Fig. 1.2) and even baked bricks. These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat (Map 1). Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was discovered (p. 6), the civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures.

The Indus valley civilization is also known as Harappan Civilization and is famous for its systematic planning based on the grid system.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization spreading from today’s North-East Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-West India. This civilization flourished in the river basins of the Indus and the Ghaggar-Hakra River.

There are seven important cities in the Indus valley civilization:

1. Mohanjodaro
2. Harappa
3. Kalibangan
4. Lothal
5. Chanhudaru
6. Dholavira
7. Banawali

Surkotada, Lothal, and Dholavira are the important port towns in the Indus valley. Harappa, Mohanjodaro, Banawali and Dholavira are considered as the four main Harappan Sites. Till 1999, over 1,056 urban areas and settlements had been found. 96 sites have been excavated, mostly in the region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the most important urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ganeriwala, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi.

 The most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres. Let us look at one such centre, Mohenjodaro, more closely. Although Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site, the first site to be discovered was Harappa.

The settlement comprises two sections: the Citadel, a smaller elevated area, and the Lower Town, a larger but lower region, both enclosed by walls. The Citadel's height is due to buildings on mud brick platforms, physically separated from the Lower Town. Both areas required extensive labor for platform construction—four million person-days for foundations alone.

After platform completion, all building activities were confined to designated areas, suggesting meticulous planning. This included standardized bricks, sun-dried or baked, with a consistent ratio (length four times, breadth twice the height), a feature across Harappan settlements. The settlement's systematic layout, its dual sections, and the effort in construction reveal a highly organized urban plan in the Harappan civilization.

One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. If you look at the plan of the Lower Town you will notice that roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them. If domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains, every house needed to have at least one wall along a street.

Agriculture in harappan civilization

While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices

Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing

terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels . The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together

Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting.

Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind. 

It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.

Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vessels for mixing, blending and cooking. These were made of stone, metal and terracotta. This is an excerpt from one of the earliest reports on excavations at Mohenjodaro, the best-known Harappan site

Mohenjodaro A Planned Urban Centre

The most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres.

Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site, the first site to be discovered was Harappa.

The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather. What is also interesting is an apparent concern for privacy: there are no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by. Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks. 

The Citadel of the Indus Valley Civilization reveals structures likely designed for special public purposes. Notable among them is a well-preserved warehouse, characterized by lower brick portions and decayed upper wooden portions. Another remarkable feature is the Great Bath—a large rectangular tank situated in a courtyard, surrounded by a corridor on all sides. Steps on the north and south lead into the watertight tank, constructed with bricks set on edge and gypsum mortar. Rooms on three sides, including one with a large well, accompanied the bath. The tank's water flowed into a sizable drain. Adjacent to the north was a smaller building with eight bathrooms, each connecting to a drain along a corridor. Scholars propose that the unique design and its location in the Citadel, alongside distinctive buildings, suggest its use for a special ritual bath.

 Burials

• Harappan burials involved placing the dead in pits, unlike the grand pyramids of Egypt.
• Some burial pits had variations, like being lined with bricks, which might suggest social differences.
• Certain graves contained pottery and ornaments, indicating a belief that these items could be used in the afterlife.
• Both men and women were buried with jewelry.
• In a Harappa cemetery excavation, a male's burial included an ornament with shell rings, a jasper bead, and micro beads near the skull.

Some individuals were buried with copper mirrors.

In general, it seems the Harappans did not believe in burying precious items with the dead, in contrast to practices in some other ancient cultures.

Looking for “luxuries”

1. Identifying Social Differences: - Archaeologists use artifacts to identify social differences, categorizing them as utilitarian or luxuries. - Utilitarian objects are daily use items made from common materials like stone or clay, found throughout settlements. - Luxuries are considered rare or made from costly, non-local materials with complex technologies. 2. Examples of Utilitarian and Luxurious Objects: - Utilitarian objects include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers, made from ordinary materials. - Luxurious objects, like little faience pots, were considered precious due to their difficulty in production (faience is a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with color and gum, then fired). 3. Complications in Classification: - Complications arise when objects that seem like daily use items, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials like faience, are found. Determining if they are utilitarian or luxuries becomes a challenge. 4. Distribution Patterns: - Rare objects made from valuable materials are concentrated in larger settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa. - Examples include miniature faience pots, possibly used as perfume bottles, which are mainly found in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, not in smaller settlements like Kalibangan. 5. Precious Materials: - Gold, a rare and precious material, was found mainly in hoards at Harappan sites. - Gold jewelry was recovered from these hoards, emphasizing its value and rarity in the civilization.

Finding about craft production

1. Chanhudaro: - Chanhudaro is a small settlement (less than 7 hectares) compared to Mohenjodaro. - Almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making. 2. Craft Production at Chanhudaro: - Craft production at Chanhudaro includes various activities like bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making. 3. Materials Used for Beads: - Variety of materials used for making beads, including stones (carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite), metals (copper, bronze, gold), and shell, faience, terracotta, or burnt clay. 4. Diversity in Bead Shapes: - Beads exhibited various shapes such as disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. - Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, and some had gold caps. - Decoration included incising, painting, and etched designs. 5. Techniques for Making Beads: - Techniques varied according to the material; steatite, a soft stone, was easily worked. - Archaeologists are puzzled about how steatite micro beads were made, as it involved ancient technology. 6. Red Color in Carnelian Beads: - Red color in carnelian beads was achieved by firing the yellowish raw material at various stages of production. - Nodules were chipped into rough shapes and finely flaked into the final form. - Grinding, polishing, and drilling completed the process. 7. Specialized Centers for Shell Objects: - Nageshwar and Balakot, located near the coast, were specialized centers for making shell objects like bangles, ladles, and inlays. 8. Distribution of Finished Products: - Finished products, like beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal, were likely transported to large urban centers such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. This summary provides an overview of the craft production activities at Chanhudaro, emphasizing the materials used, techniques employed, and the distribution of finished products to other urban centers.

Seals, Scripts and weights

Seals and sealings:

- Communication Method: Seals and sealings were used for long-distance communication. Picture sending a bag of goods from one place to another. The bag was tied with a rope, and on the knot, wet clay with one or more seals was pressed to create an impression.

- Security Measure: If the bag reached its destination with the seal intact, it meant no one had tampered with it. The seal also revealed the identity of the sender.

 An enigmatic script:

- Harappan Seals:  Harappan seals typically had a line of writing, likely containing the owner's name and title. Some featured a motif, often an animal, believed to convey meaning to those who couldn't read.

-Script Characteristics: The script is still undeciphered, but scholars believe it wasn't alphabetical due to its complexity—somewhere between 375 and 400 signs. It was written from right to left, indicated by wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left in some seals.

- Object Variety: Writing was found on various objects like seals, copper tools, jar rims, tablets, jewelry, bone rods, and even an ancient signboard. This suggests the possibility of widespread literacy.

  

Weights:

-Regulation of Exchanges:  A precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert, was used to regulate exchanges. These weights were generally cubical in shape, as shown in Figure 1.2, and lacked markings.

The use of seals for secure communication, an undeciphered script found on various objects, and a regulated exchange system using cubical weights made of chert.

There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. Take for instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery (Fig. 1.14), seals, weights and bricks. Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. We have also seen that settlements were strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons. Besides, labour was mobilised for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls and platforms. Who organised these activities?

Ancient Authority- places and king

1. Lack of Clear Power Centers:

   - Observation: Archaeological records do not immediately reveal a clear center of power or depictions of people in power in the Harappan civilization.

   - Example: A large building in Mohenjodaro was labeled as a palace, but no remarkable finds were associated with it.

2. The "Priest-King" Statue:

   - Identification: A stone statue is known as the "priest-king" based on parallels drawn from Mesopotamian history.

   - Caution: The understanding of the Harappan civilization's ritual practices, and whether those who performed them held political power, is not well-established.

3. Diverse Views on Rulership:

   - Differing Opinions: Archaeologists hold various opinions regarding rulership in Harappan society.

   - Equality Theory: Some believe there were no rulers, and everyone enjoyed equal status.

   - Multiple Rulers: Others suggest multiple rulers, with different cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa having separate rulers.

   - Single State Theory: Another perspective argues for a single state based on similarities in artifacts, planned settlements, standardized brick size ratios, and the strategic location of settlements near raw material sources.

4. Plausibility of a Single State:

   - Leading Theory: As of now, the idea of a single state seems the most plausible.

   - Evidence Support: This theory is supported by the similarity in artifacts, planned settlements, standardized brick sizes, and the strategic placement of settlements near raw material sources.

   - Complexity of Decisions: The paragraph concludes that it is unlikely for entire communities to collectively make and implement such complex decisions, reinforcing the plausibility of a single state.

In summary,  the challenges of identifying power centers in the Harappan civilization. It touches on the labeling of structures as palaces, the "priest-king" statue, and the diversity of opinions among archaeologists regarding rulership. The plausibility of a single state is highlighted, considering various archaeological evidence and the complexity of decision-making.

The end of civilization

1. Abandonment of Mature Harappan Sites:

   - Observation: By around 1800 BCE, many Mature Harappan sites, particularly in Cholistan, had been abandoned.

   - Population Movement: Simultaneously, there was a population expansion into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.

2. Transformation in Occupied Sites (After 1900 BCE):

   - Change in Material Culture: In Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE, there was a transformation in material culture.

   - Disappearance of Distinctive Artefacts: The distinctive artifacts of the civilization, such as weights, seals, and special beads, disappeared.

   - Decline in Writing, Trade, and Specialization: Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also declined. Overall, fewer materials were used to create fewer things.

   - Deterioration of Construction Techniques: House construction techniques deteriorated, and large public structures were no longer produced.

   - Shift to Rural Way of Life: Artefacts and settlements indicate a shift to a rural way of life during the "Late Harappan" or "successor cultures" period.

3. Possible Explanations for Changes:

   - Proposed Explanations: Various explanations have been suggested for these changes, including climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, and the shifting or drying up of rivers.

   - Limitations of Explanations: While some explanations may apply to specific settlements, they do not fully explain the collapse of the entire civilization.

4. End of a Unifying Element - The Harappan State:

   - Evidence of Decline: The disappearance of seals, script, distinctive beads, and pottery, along with the shift from a standardized weight system to local weights, suggests a decline.

   - Abandonment of Cities: Cities experienced a decline and abandonment.

   - Hypothesis: The paragraph suggests that a strong unifying element, possibly the Harappan state, came to an end, leading to the collapse of the civilization.

5. Long Wait for New Developments:

   - Time Gap: The subcontinent had to wait for over a millennium for new cities to develop, and these emerged in a completely different region.

In summary, the decline and eventual collapse of the Harappan civilization, highlighting changes in material culture, the abandonment of cities, and the disappearance of key elements. The suggested reasons for these changes range from environmental factors to the end of a unifying element, possibly the Harappan state.